In nocturnal macrosmatic animals, olfaction is the predominant sensory channel and their vibrissae are usually very long, to detect the presence of objects at relatively large distances. Important dream theories are Freud's interpretation of dreams, In ancient Greece, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle discussed about the meaning of dreams, concluding that the prevailing mistic and mythic concepts about them were incorrect. They may be involved only in intermediate steps of the processes that cause such movements. Another hypothesis to account for desynchronized sleep function is that this phase of sleep is programmed to occur when central temperature is low and that it has a thermoregulatory function. Wallace CS, Withers GS, George VM, Clayton OF, Greenough WT. 2022 Nov 3;12(11):1832. doi: 10.3390/jpm12111832. the apparitions. 95. 81. Roussy F, Camirand C, Foulkes D, De Koninck J, Loftis M, Kerr NH. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1955:673-690. The .gov means its official. 75. Petersohn D, Schoch S, Brinkmann DR, Thiel G. The human synapsin II gene promoter. Green JD, Arduini A. Hippocampal activity in arousal. The subjects of dreams are broad-ranging and complex, incorporating self-image, fears, insecurities, strengths, grandiose ideas, sexual orientation, desire, jealousy and love". Jouvet M. Le sommeil paradoxal est-il responsable d'une programmation gntique du cerveau? Dreams and Nightmares in Patients With Obstructive Sleep Apnea: A Review. Lesion of the alpha coeruleus nucleus impairs the tonic motor inhibition; lesion of the pedunculo-pontine tegmental nucleus impairs the phasic motor inhibition (58,59). It is well known that the noise of an airplane usually does not awake people who live in the neighborhoods of airports but a light door creek may be enough to arouse them, as well as the groan produced by an infant child may arouse the parents, mainly the mother. Cole AJ, Saffen DW, Baraban JM, Worley PF. One is that dreams are generated by the activation of neural activity in the brainstem and its signal transmission to the cortex. Intermediate state of sleep in the cat. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1992;2:759-63. Another change of the electro-oscillograms we disclosed in rats by carefully analyzing their time-course while a dream is on (as well as during attentive wakefulness) is the presence of short periods of desynchronization that interrupt or superimpose on theta waves. During a visual dream the eyes move (Figure 3) whereas during an auditory dream the middle ear ossicles (stapedius and tensor tympani) are activated (Figure 4). Valle AC. Frequency clearly increases and becomes regular, as compared with the trend before oniric activity. The leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new theories of dreaming were proposed. J Neurosci 1995;15:3500-8. 45. Figure 6 shows an increase in heart rate from 150 bpm to 180 bpm (the latter is the normal heart rate during resting wakefulness in this species), coinciding with the peak of eye movements. However, we all know that many dreams are not emotional at all. (1991) and Lovblad et al. Les Belles Lettres, Paris 1978. Braz J Med Biol Res 1996;29:1645-50. 2021 Aug 30;24(2):543. doi: 10.4081/ripppo.2021.543. Later, school and work dominate the mental field and the main features in dreams also change accordingly, supporting this hypothesis. Grimm R, Tischmeyer W. Complex patterns of immediate gene induction in rat brain following brightness discrimination training and pseudotraining. WebAbstract. McNiss, in his book Philosophy of Sleep, published in 1854, agreed with Aristotle, regarding eye movements as a consequence of visual dreams, and Pinkerton, in Sleep and its Phenomena, also took the facial movements of dogs and cats during sleep as a manifestation of dreams (4,5). Brainstem Control of Wakefulness and Sleep. Experimental methodologies permitted investigation of the responsiveness of dreams to external stimulation and the effects of deprivation of REM sleep. However, interruption of the pyramidal tract hardly affects the appearance of muscular twitches during desyncronized sleep (83,84) but the reticulospinal tract seems to be involved in such twitches (85) whereas the associaton cortex does not appear to be activated (86). (1987) suggested the occurrence of two kinds of eye movements during dreams, one associated to the very dream content, another of reflex nature, that may be involved in those occurring in children and in blind people but such a hypothesis is unlikely to be valid (35). Desynchronized sleep can be provoked by carbachol infusion in the pontine reticular formation (94). HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help We spend a lot of time sleeping. 88. Sakai K, Sastre JP, Salvert D, Touret M, Toyama M, Jouvet M. Tegmentoreticular projections with special reference to the muscular distonia during paradoxical sleep in the cat. The eye movements that occur during desynchronized sleep are equivalent to limb and face twitches occurring during the same phase of sleep and seem to have the same functional meaning. 57. On the functional role of consciousness. In non-human animals the report regarding dreams is obviously impossible but, fortunately, a dream can be detected in both humans and other species by analyzing its motor, vegetative and electrophysiological manifestations, as will be described below. Above the transection, synchronized and desynchronized sleep keep occurring but without eye movements. We hypothetize that theta waves are commanding signals that recruit in due sequence the circuits that generate wakefulness and desynchronized sleep and their components; their frequency and voltage generally increase in parallel with heart rate and intensity of movements (Valle & Timo-Iaria, unpublished results). 5. To what degree, and in what way, implications can be drawn from these findings for the psychology of dreaming is controversial. If, as an advantage, in humans such manifestations of dreams can be related to their reported content, in non-human animals it is possible to record with a high degree of accuracy not only the motor and the vegetative manifestations of dremaing but the electro-oscillograms of many central structures as well. De Sanctis, whose main research on sleep was the incorporation of sensory stimulation into dreams, states in his book that "by measuring the pulse and observing the movements in humans and other animals during sleep it is possible to detect the occurrence of dreaming and sometimes even to guess the dream content". The oscillation of the sleep depth as cycles, as is well known presently, is quite clear in this figure. 64. 17. 110. Brain Res 1982;233:287-98. J Neurosci 1991;11:2804-11. The physiological-functioning theory suggests that dreaming works the same way. Fortunately, this author did not suggest that dreaming, with all its movements, is intended to produce heat from the fake muscular contractions that occur as an expression of dreams. Not only theta waves do occur in the cerebellar cortex during desynchronized sleep but also spindles and delta waves are found in this organ in synchronized sleep, just as in neocortical areas. Functional neuroanatomy of human rapid-eye-movement sleep and dreaming. Sleep 1982;5:169-87. Considering that desynchronization is predominant all over the cortex in humans and in the frontal cortex of both cats and rats, we consider it to be a phylogenetically more recent functional acquisition. Energy conservation theory posits that the main function of sleep is to reduce a person's energy demand during part of the day and night when it is least efficient to hunt for food. 128. 105. In this preparation body temperature is not regulated anymore and the animal has to be artificially warmed at nearly 37C. The correlation between dream content and the oniric movements was first studied by Aristotle, who identified lip, eye and limb movements and correctly related them to what was being dreamed of. On the other hand, respiration usually undergoes a reduction in frequency and in frequency variation but during dreaming activity the respiratory frequency increases and becomes variable, which is certainly related to the temporal evolution of the oniric experience, as is the case during wakefulness. In other words, they're simply a byproduct of brain processes during sleep. Guazzi M, Baccelli G, Zanchetti A. Carotid body chemoreceptors: physiological role in buffering fall in blood pressure during sleep. During dreaming, however, it is well known that both heart rate and blood pressure undergo short duration increases (as related to the decreased values), which are most likely linked to the oniric behavior. Theta waves, discovered by Jung and Kornmller in 1938 (72), were extensively studied by Green & Arduini (73), who proved they are related to arousal. Further studies have shown that the pathways from the alphacoeruleus nuclei to inhibit the motoneurons are rather complex. Short periods of desynchronization breaking through theta waves may, therefore, be taken as a manifestation of a very high degree of attention, during attentive wakefulness or during dreaming. However, we still do not know why most motor units are inactivated while a few ones are mobilized, causing real but incoherent and non-efficient movements. Visual dreams provoke eye movements. WebDream theories developed by Freud suggest that dreams are psychological, revealing hidden urges, for example. Around 80 per cent of such motor activity was found to occur during desynchronized sleep, what points to its participation in dreaming activity. The substrate, physiological mechanism, and function of dreaming have been explained by many scientists from the neurological, psychiatric, psychological, and philosophical perspective. A correlation has been proposed between the development of desynchronized sleep in children and their waking cognitive maturation (24). Rados R, Cartwright RD. Desynchronization is the rule, during this phase, in all cortical electro-oscillograms in humans and other primates. The reason why when we dream we are walking we do not get out of the bed and really walk, or when we dream we are talking to someone we do not really talk, is that neural circuits located in the neighborhood of locus coeruleus, in the pontine tegmentum, inhibit the motoneurons and do not allow the real movements to occur. J Sleep Res 1993;2:188-92. Mori D, Shik ML, yagodnitsyn AS. Exploring the neural correlates of dream phenomenology and altered states of consciousness during sleep. Douglas NJ. 44. By comparing the program with the peripheral information, that tells it how the behavior is evolving, the cerebellum produces corrections, so that the execution can match the program. At 36C, for instance, desynchronized sleep spans to about 10% of time, at 23C it occupies nearly 80% of the time, what has not been explained so far. There are many hypotheses to account for the existence of dreams but it is still a matter of debate why and what for we dream. According to Revonsuo (2000), memories of such events are probably over-represented in the brain. 56. By visually examining the amplitude of theta waves in these examples it seems they vary at random but when the instant variation of voltage is plotted as a function of time, a regular variation appears during the phasic movements (figure 10). Braun et al. In humans, both reflex activities are also deeply inhibited during desynchronized sleep. Later research argues that dreams are physiological, beginning with random electrical impulses deep within the brain stem. In people with arterial aneurisms such a high pressure may provoke their rupture. The number of PGO potentials undergoes a high increase after the frontal ablation, which is suggestive of a tonic inhibition of these potentials by the frontal cortex. In 1936, Klaue (12) described periods of sleep in cats characterized by high frequency electrocorticograms that he considered as a sign of deep sleep and in 1950 Passouant described a phase of desynchronization (a term coined by Adrian to label an increase in frequency with a decrease in voltage) of the EEG potentials in humans. Although it has not been shown that the alpha-coeruleus nuclei are lesioned in these patients, it is tempting to consider that their lesion underlies such sleep disturbance. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1987;66:383-90. Kubin L, Davies RO, Pack AI. Longitudinal studies. Geschichte der Physiologie. 31. 136. Exptl Neurol 1963;8:93-111. Gadea-Ciria M. Plasticity of ponto-geniculo-occipital waves during paradoxical sleep after frontal lobe lesions in the cat. If we dream we are walking, the electromyographic recordings from muscles involved in such behavior show quite clearly that they are not able to produce normal movements. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:793-842. Calkins thus discovered that most dreams occur during the second half of the night and that around 89% of them are closely related to the events occurring the day before, confirming Aristotle. Ponto-geniculo-occipital (PGO) burst neurons: correlative evidence for neuronal generators of PGO waves. 86. Fratelli Bocca Editori, Torino 1899. Rapid increase of an immediate early gene messenger RNA in hippocampal neurons by synaptic NMDA receptor activation. Arch Ital Biol 1965;103:369-96. Figure 9 illustrates an episode of olfactory and vibrissal movements. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1992;16:25-30. Moruzzi G. Sleep and instinctive behavior. Therefore, desynchronized sleep should be ascribed a homeothermic function (116). Mori S, Matysuyama K, Kohyama J, Kobayashi y, Takakusaki K. Neuronal constituents of postural and locomotor control systems and their interactions in cats. In rats, heart rate is clearly accelerated during the periods of oniric activity, expressed as rostrum+vibrissae, eye, head, ear and limb movements. 14. When a dream is a nightmare, both motor and vegetative events may be very intense. Such periods were overlooked in the classic studies of Loomis and co-workets (13), in which they identified the phases of synchronized (another term coined by Adrian but now to label slow waves, i.e., potentials with a low frequency and a high voltage) sleep. eCollection 2021 Aug 12. Ergebn. When only one side of the reticular formation is also destroyed, the same pattern of recovery does occur; if the other side of the reticular formation is also destroyed after two or three weeks, recovery of wakefulness and desynchronized sleep is even faster than when both sides are lesioned at the same time. Such important discoveries were buried by the impact of psychoanalysis, which was created soon after Calkins' work was published. Eye movements during dreaming are usually expressed as potentials of different voltages, which can be interpreted as due to distinct movements performed as a function of the movements of the dreamed of objects. Front Neurol. Inasmuch as rats do not tell us their dreams, we inferred the kinds of dreams by considering the patterns of movements the animals performed. The leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. Brain Res 1985;327:362-6. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1966;21:562-77. WebDreams are still taken by a majority of the human kind as premonitory, ascribing them the function of telling us that something important will happen. Electrical stimulation of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis evokes bilateral muscle atonia in decerebrate cats (52). Deprivation of desynchronized sleep during early development not only retards brain maturation but also inhibits the growth response to the brain environmental stimulation later in life (113). 62. Physiological-functioning theor y was supported in a 2009 paper written by J. Allan Salivary, gastric, enteric, pancreatic and billiary secretion and contraction of the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal viscera are specific vegetative components of feeding behavior, as well as secretion of luteotropic hormone, increase in cavernous blood pressure and vaginal blood flow and several other endocrine adjustments are part and characteristic of sexual behavior. C R S Soc Biol (Paris) 1964;158:99-103. The most prominent, the activation-synthesis hypothesis, derived its view of dreaming directly from the neurophysiology of REM sleep, in particular the role of the brain stem, and in its original form regarded dreams as not essentially meaningful. Arch Ital Biol 1963;101:648-68. Psychophysiology 1968;4:311-23. 2020 Nov 12;11:565694. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.565694. The dream between neuroscience and psychoanalysis. This seems to be a highly improbably conception, among other reasons because, as dreaming is concerned, threatening events are as dangerous to the organism as bad news we hear and as crossing a street or watching a movie-film full of violence are as well. WebThe language of dreaming shows that certain parts of the brain are active during dreams while others are inactive. Some scientists take the position that dreaming probably has no function. Phenomenal dream content, however, is not as disorganized as such views imply. These findings point to a decreased activation of executive and association cortex during desynchronized sleep, what is suggestive that the processes involved in building up wakeful thought and dreaming may be distinct. Fenn WO, Hursh JB. Sleep patterns during rearing under different environmental conditions in juveline rats. World Fed Sleep Res Soc Newsletter 1997;5:20-1. In: Baust, W. J Neurophysiol 1938;1:413-30. Rothschuch KR. Neurosc Res 1993;17:181-202. 114. 96. 101. 135. As shown in figure 2, information released (by some passive mechanism) or revoked from memory (through some active but entirely unknown mechanism) is combined by processes that may be equivalent to, but different from, those that produce thoughts during wakefulness (21). Roffwarg et al. The data reported in table 1 reflect a close distribution of the dream content as related to their sensory content. A theory that has many Pontine cholinergic neurons show fos-like immunoreactivity associated with cholinergically induced REM sleep. (eds.) Moruzzi G. The sleep-wakefulness cycle. Gassel MM, Marchiafava PL, Pompeiano O. Jouvet believes that dreaming activity plays a key role during the earliest years of life and thus may be involved in continuously programming some of the most subtle reactions of our consciousness during wakefulness. Berlucchi G. Mechanismen von Schlafen und Wachen. Braz J Med Biol Res 1990;23:617-20. Timo-Iaria C, Valle AC. 42. 20. Disclaimer. The discovery of the close association between rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and dreaming and development of sleep laboratory techniques ushered in a new era in the study of dreams. Psychoanalysis considers dreams as an important window to the unconscious world, what makes dream interpretation a crucial factor in psychonalytic diagnosis and treatment. Roffwarg HP, Adrien J, Herman J, Pessah M, Spiro R, Bowe-Anders C. The middle ear muscle activity in the neurophysiology and psychophysiology of the REM state. Winson J. In cats, tympanic muscles sometimes contract during desynchronized sleep (38), as shown in Figure 4. J Physiol (London) 1993;461:549-63. Science 1953;118:273-4. Perachio AA. 23. 50. Therefore, theta waves undergo both AM and FM changes that certainly carry some kind of information that may prove in the future to be crucial for understanding dreams. Candia O, Favale E, Guissani A, Rossi G. Blood pressure during natural sleep and during sleep induced by electrical stimulation of the brain stem reticular formation. New findings on the neurological organization of dreaming: implications for psychoanalysis. During the past two decades several authors also did quantify the kinds of dreams. Regional cerebral blood flow throughout the sleep-cyle an (H2O)-O-15 PET study. Functional neuroanatomy of human rapid-eye-movement sleep and dreaming. 51. WebThis theory also implies that dreams are not independently functional but rather a coproduct of the sleeping brain, reflecting the dreamers physiological and psychological Baldissera F, Broggi G. An analysis of potential changes in the spinal cord during desynchronized sleep. During this bright period of the Middle Ages some physicians also reasoned about dreams. Nofzinger EA, Mintun MA, Wiseman MB, Kupfer DJ, Moore Ry. ", "As to the oviparous creatures, it is obvious that they sleep but it is impossible to state that they dream. Behav Brain Res 1995;69:13-22. 54. Timo-Iaria C. Early research on dreaming. As any neural information, it has to be analyzed, so that the nervous impulses, which carry it be decoded and integrated as a specific neural configuration, that contains all the information released (or revoked) from the mnemonic archives. Control of upper airway motoneurons during REM sleep. Winson (1990) believes that dreams "reflect an individual strategy for survival. Chaudhuri A. Neural activity mapping with inducible transcription factors. 48. Narcolepsy. Later, the Roman writer Lucretius, the first popularizer of science, in his book De Rerum Natura (1978) credited these Greek philosophers for the discovery of the characteristics of sleep and dreams (2). 3. In decerebrate cats eye movements do occur and are integrated below the midbrain (67,95). Interestingly enough, if body temperature in cats subjected to pontomesencephalic transection is lowered, the amount of desynchronized sleep increases. Changes in hippocampal gene expression associated with the induction of long-term potentiation. Miyauchi S, Takino R, Fukuda H, Torii S. Electrophysiological evidence for dreaming. 108. Neurons from the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis send fibers to nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis in the medulla, a part of which passes through the dorsal tegmental field of the pons, and electrical stimulation of both nuclei also produces inhibition of muscle tone (53,54). Instead, they thought that dreams were not provoked by spirits, ghosts or gods, which took over the mind to express themselves through dreaming. J Neurophysiol 1946;9:165-71. Accordingly, they are known as PGO (pontine, occipital cortex and lateral geniculate nucleus) potentials. Acta Med Iug 1978;32:45-50. Jouvet M. Programmation gntique itrative et sommeil paradoxal. 119. Freuds wish-fulfillment. Vanni-Mercier and co-workers (1994) believe, however, that in cats eye movements during desynchronized sleep are in general asymmetric, that is, the eyes tend to move preferentially to one side of the visual field, what, according to these authors, disprove the hypothesis of the scanning character of eye movements during dreams (29). Data reported in table 1 reflect a close distribution of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis evokes muscle! On the neurological organization of dreaming: implications for psychoanalysis occurring but without eye movements do occur are... Generated by the activation of neural activity mapping with inducible transcription factors to... Sleep in children and their waking cognitive maturation ( 24 ) ( 24 ) D, Koninck... Transcription factors for survival the physiological-functioning theory suggests that dreaming probably has no function they! Sleep after frontal lobe lesions in the brainstem and its signal transmission to the oviparous,... 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For dreaming humans and other primates to its participation in dreaming activity between development..., the amount of desynchronized sleep Brinkmann DR, Thiel G. the human synapsin II gene promoter during past... Active during dreams while others are inactive cholinergically induced REM sleep are generated the.